Best duplicate photo finder for large photo collections that can find duplicates across file formats

I work at an ad agency, and my photo archive has basically become an unmanageable monster at this point. Years of campaign shoots, product photography, behind-the-scenes shots, multiple takes of the same setup, backups of backups - I'm talking tens of thousands of images, and I know a huge chunk of them are duplicates or near-duplicates that I don't even need.

So I finally decided to tackle it and tried a couple of duplicate photo finder apps.

Czkawka ... crashes. Like, mid-scan, the whole program freezes and then disappears from my screen entirely. No error, no warning, just gone. Tried running it again - same thing.

Switched to dupeGuru since it's the one everyone recommends. The problem is that it only catches exact duplicates - same file, same bytes. But my situation is different: I've got the same shot exported in different resolutions for different clients, slightly different edits and retouches, RAW + JPEG pairs, and burst shots that are 95% identical but not byte-for-byte matches. dupeGuru just doesn't see those as duplicates, so I'm still left digging through hundreds of near-identical images manually.

Awesome Duplicate Photo Finder works intermittently and requires marking files one by one. (I also got a PUA warning from my antivirus about it.)

I also tried Duplicate Photo Cleaner, AntiDupl, AllDup, PictureEcho, Duplicate Photos Fixer, and VisiPics. They either don't find duplicates across formats or completely crash even on just a few thousand photos.

At this point, I'm honestly exhausted. Is there something out there that actually handles visual/perceptual duplicates (not just exact file matches) and doesn't crash on a large archive? I'd love to hear what's actually worked for people managing large professional archives, not just casual phone galleries.

P.S. I'm not using Lightroom, and I can't justify paying for a subscription just for this. However, I don't mind paying for a tool if it actually works.